Chapter 13

Neobehaviorism

Logical Positivism, Operationalism, and Physicalism

• Positivism
  • Recall Comte's radical empiricism
    • Can only understand the world by avoiding metaphysical explanations
  • Ernst Mach emphasized the importance of the observer's perceptions in science
    • But, he too argued that one must not go beyond one's observations
  • Both Comte and Mach argued for data collection only (like Bacon) and the avoidance of theory
• Logical Positivism
  • Comte's and Mach's position was hard to hold in light of physical concepts like gravity, electricity, and other forces
  • Logical positivism provided a way out by postulating:
    • empirical science
    • theoretical science
  • The science of science (S.S. Stevens)
  • Logical positivism became the lingua franca of neobehaviorism
• Operationism
  • Percy W. Bridgman's Logic of Modern Physics was extremely influential in promoting operationism
  • Bridgman argued that every abstract concept in physics could be operationally defined
  • Operational definitions
    • define a concept by the procedures which produce it
      • i.e., hunger, love?
• Physicalism
  • Belief that all sciences are the same
  • That physics is the best model for all science
• Neobehaviorism
  • Methodological behaviorism
    • nearly all psychologists
  • Operational behaviorism
    • restrictive form of behaviorism
    • hewed to the operational definition
  • Radical behaviorism
    • Skinner's twist on operationism
    • Redefines environment to include one's inner environment
  • Cognitive behaviorism
    • Tolman's purposive behaviorism
    • Assumed animals had intentions
  • Assumptions of Neobehaviorism
    • Theorizing must follow dictates of logical positivism
    • Theoretical terms must be operationally defined
    • Animals should be used as primary subjects
    • Learning is main subject matter of psychology

Neobehaviorists

• Edward Chace Tolman (1886-1959))
  • Life
    • Raised as a Quaker
    • MIT undergrad
    • Harvard Ph.D. (under Munsterberg)
    • Spent a year in Germany, studied with Kurt Koffka
    • First position at Northwestern, may have been let go because of his WW I pacifism
    • Went to U of California--Berkeley for rest of career
    • Refused to sign California loyalty oath
  • Psychology
    • Cognitive behaviorist
      • believed animals were purposive (i.e., they had goals and intentions)
    • S-S theorist
      • intervening variables
        • fit in between environmental events (independent variables) and behavior (dependent variables)
        • introduced theorizing to behaviorism
        • i.e., hunger
      • beliefs, signs, expectancies
      • chaining
      • cognitive maps
      • latent learning (graph)
    • Hull's rival
    • Tolman and his students spent more time fighting Hull than they did in offering a logical alternative to Hullian theorizing
    • Grandfather of modern cognitive psychology
• Clark Leonard Hull (1884-1952)
  • Life
    • Hard life in many ways
      • one room schoolhouse
      • polio
      • poor
    • Overcame much and completed his Ph.D. at Wisconsin in 1920
    • Stayed at Wisconsin until 1929
    • Had an aptitude for designing apparatus
    • Went to Yale in 1929
  • Psychology
    • Goal was to establish a mechanistic, hypothetico-deductive theory
    • Developed a complex theory
    • Principle variables in his theory
      • reaction potential _SE_R
      • drive D
        • drive reduction was mechanism of reinforcement
      • habit strength _SH_R
      • stimulus intensity dynamism V
      • incentive K
    • 1952 basic version of his theory
      • _SE_R=_SH_R x D x K x V
    • After his death his student, Kenneth Spence, modified his theory extensively
    • Hullian theory now mostly of historical interest
      • methodology was fine
      • subject matter was too restricted
• Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990)
  • Life
    • Another "lost" undergraduate
      • attended Hamilton College in New York
      • never took a psychology course there
      • took to playing pranks his senior year
    • Tried to become a writer
      • wrote in parent's attic, New York, and Paris
      • read Watson and Pavlov
    • Enrolled at Harvard in psychology
      • his life changed
        • became a devoted student of psychology
      • received his Ph.D. in 1931
    • Academic positions
      • spent five years at Harvard as a postdoctoral student
      • University of Minnesota (1936-1945)
      • University of Indiana (1945-48)
      • Harvard University (1948-1990)
  • Psychology
    • True follower of positivism
      • believed in the Baconian notion of describing relationships between events
      • acknowledged his intellectual debt to Mach
    • Anti-theorist
      • not a logical positivist
      • simply attempted to describe the environment and its effects on organisms
    • Environmental determinist
      • really believed that a complete psychology could result from a precise description of environmental events and their contingencies
      • physical monist
    • Exploited operant conditioning in his research
      • developed the operant chamber (a.k.a. "the Skinner box")
      • animals would learn the simple rules of the operant chamber
        • i.e., lever press would result in food, or key press would result in water, etc.
    • Functional analysis of behavior
      • one the main issues in understanding Skinner
      • consists of the search for the events in the environment that control behavior
        • i.e., stimuli, reinforcers, and responses
        • reinforcement history
      • notice how the functional analysis of behavior is the proof of his environmental determinism
      • role of mental events
        • E-->M-->R = is typical psychological approach
        • E-->R = is what Skinner suggests is more appropriate
        • M is a "mental way station" at best, and a "explanatory fiction" at worst
    • Radical behaviorism or behavioral analysis
      • Skinner redefines behaviorism
        • expands the environment to include one's internal environment (note: not seen as mental)
        • the rules of the functional analysis of behavior also apply to the internal environment
          • i.e., (with thanks to Jay Moore) hitting a tennis ball
            • saying "keep your eye on the ball" to yourself
            • to the extent that saying that is reinforcing (the ball stays in play), person will keep saying it
            • if, on the other hand, ball does not stay in play, those words will extinguish
        • notice how this redefinition opens psychology to a much wider potential number of topics (compared to Hull, for instance)
    • Practical applications of behavioral analysis
      • therapy
        • behavioral therapy is very common
          • i.e., counterconditioning (systematic desensitization), flooding, token economies
      • teaching machines or programmed instruction
        • divide topics into small steps and reinforce performance
        • require performance criterion prior to moving on to next topic
        • not more successful than other methods of teaching
      • teaching animals to perform useful behaviors
        • WW II pigeon rocket navigation
        • Coast Guard rescue helicopter, pigeons, and international orange
        • entertainment by trained animals
      • child rearing
        • Skinner's aircrib
        • reared second daughter in it
        • she used it for her baby
    • Skinner as social engineer
      • Walden Two (1948)
        • Skinner attempts to solve human problems through his version of psychology
      • Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971)
        • Skinner's later attempt to apply operant psychology to the problems of the world
    • Influence
      • Behavior analysis is small but vocal contingent of modern psychology
      • Provided impetus for research in cognitive psychology

Other Behaviorists (not on test, for future)

• Edwin R. Guthrie
• Karl Lashley
• Edwin B. Holt
• Albert P. Weiss

URLs

• The Age of "isms"--tutorial, basic, medium, links, graphics
  • Page on early psychological theories, covers: Wundt and structuralism, Ebbinghaus, James and Functionalism, Watson and Behaviorism, and Gestalt psychology. Also includes demonstration of Gestalt principles of perception. http://www.geneseo.edu/~intd225/psycisms.html
• Mind and Body: From Descartes to James--index, interm., medium, links, graphics
  • This page is an on-line version of a catalogue of a book exhibition at the National Library of Medicine in 1992. The exhibition was in conjuction with the celebration of the centennial of the American Psychological Association (APA). Topics included are: Rene Descartes and the legacy of mind-body dualism, the rise of experimental psychology, and psychology in America. http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/Mind/Table.html
• Classics in the History of Psychology--index, adv., short, links
  • A page with full text works by: Aristotle, Baldwin, Cattell & Jastrow, Binet, Cattell (J. McK.) Darwin, Dewey, Freud, James, Koffka, Mead, Plato, Terman, and Watson. http://www.yorku.ca/dept/psych/classics/
• The History of Psychology--index, basic, medium, links, graphics
  • Page that links to other resources in the history of psychology. Has links to pages on Dewey, Piaget, Helmholz, Skinner, and others. http://www.guam.net/home/bmarmie/history.html
• Biographies of Psychologists--index, basic, short, links
  • Short biographies of: Alfred Adler, Alfred Binet, Edward de Bono, Hans Eysenck, Sigmund Freud, Howard Gardner , Karen Horney, William James, C.G. Jung, R.D. Laing, Abraham Maslow, Don Norman, Robert Ornstein, Wilhelm Reich, Carl Rogers, B.F. Skinner, Thomas Szasz, Lewis Terman, Edward L Thorndike, and John B. Watson. http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~rsauzier/Biography.html#Psychology
• People and Discoveries--index, basic, short, links, graphics
  • Page provides short biographies of the following: Jean-Martin Charcot, Charles Davenport, Sigmund Freud, Frieda Fromm-Reichmann, Harry Harlow, Abraham Maslow, Ivan Pavlov, Wilder Penfield, B.F. Skinner, Roger Sperry, and John Watson. The page also has linked timeline of discoveries in psychology from 1900 to 1993. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/humbeh.html
• The Behavioral System--tutorial, basic, medium, links
  • Discusses types of learning and some basic terms and concepts. http://www.valdosta.peachnet.edu/~whuitt/psy702/behsys/behsys.html
• Behaviorism--tutorial, adv., long, links
  • Tables list theoretical issues in behaviorism. Tables are: criticisms and responses to behaviorist arguments, behavioral data language, theoretical concepts, theorizing, S-R psychology, and the organization of behavior. http://galton.psych.nwu.edu/GreatIdeas/behaviorism.html
• Behavior Analysis, Radical Behaviorism, Mentalism, and Methodological Behaviorism-- text, adv., long
  • Classroom hand out fully characterizes and describes behavior analysis and radical behaviorism. Later, the issue of mentalism is addressed and behavior analysis's objections to it are explained. http://www.uwm.edu/People/jcm/psy551/skinner.2/ho3
• Definitions of Behaviorism--text, interm., long
  • Classroom hand out describes, characterizes, and contrasts methodological behaviorism with radical behaviorism. http://www.uwm.edu/People/jcm/psy551/skinner.2/ho2
• Behavior Analysis, Radical Behaviorism, Mentalism, and Methodological Behaviorism-- text, adv., long
  • Classroom hand out fully characterizes and describes behavior analysis and radical behaviorism. Later, the issue of mentalism is addressed and behavior analysis's objections to it are explained. http://www.uwm.edu/People/jcm/psy551/skinner.2/ho3
• Behavior Terminology--text, basic, long, links
  • Page provides a list of basic terms use in describing learning and conditioning, a self test, and more information about learning and conditioning. http://pages.prodigy.com/behavior/
• Lectures in Learning--index, basic, short, links, graphics
  • From the home page of an instructor, provides basic, referenced lectures with graphics. Lectures included are: evolution and animal intelligence, the reflex from Descartes to Pavlov, basic concepts in classical conditioning, cognitive models of associative learning, what is learned in classical conditioning, trial and Error, from the rise of Thorndike to the fall of J.B. Watson, operant conditioning, generality, constraints and concepts in learning. http://www.dur.ac.uk/~dps1rwk/
• Timelines: Psychology 1846-1935--NEW, adv., long, links
  • A chronological list of events in the history of psychology from 1846 to 1935. http://paradigm.soci.brocku.ca:80/~lward/TIME/TIME_PSY.HTML
• The Hullian Approach to Learning--text, basic, long
  • This page briefly describes Clark Hull's approach to learning and some of the data that failed to support his drive-reduction hypothesis. http://www.uwm.edu/People/jcm/psy551/hull/ho2
• Spence's Modifications of Hull's Approach--text, adv., long
  • Spence's attempts to account for the PRE, cognitive factors in learning, latent learning, and other phenomena are covered in this classroom handout. http://www.uwm.edu/People/jcm/psy551/spence/ho2
• Operant or Instrumental Conditioning--tutorial, basic, long, links, graphics
  • Page covers the basics of operant and instrumental conditioning. Topics included are: early investigation of instrumental conditioning, some terminology, some characteristics of operant conditioning, Premack's principle, positive and negative reinforcement, and avoidance learning. http://www.general.uwa.edu.au/u/kraepeln/operant.htm
• Operant/Respondent Distinction--tutorial, interm., long
  • A classroom hand out on the differences between operants and respondents (classical conditioning). http://www.uwm.edu/People/jcm/psy551/skinner.1/ho3
• Rat in a Skinner Box (operant chamber)--graphic, basic, short, graphics
  • Color photo of a white rat in a Skinner box. http://www.sigmaxi.org/amsci/captions/captions96-03/blum-2.html
• Pigeon in a Skinner Box (operant chamber)--graphic, basic, short, graphics
  • Color graphic of a pigeon in a Skinner box. http://www.sigmaxi.org/amsci/img/Art95-05/Wasserman.gif
• Positive Reinforcement--tutorial, basic, long, links
  • Page teaches the concept of positive reinforcement, provides a definition and six examples. http://server.bmod.athabascau.ca/html/prtut/reinpair.htm
• Reinforcement and Punishment--tutorial, interm., long
  • A classroom hand out on the definitions of reinforcement and punishment. Covers the details and nuances of positive and negative aspects of both reinforcement and punishment. http://www.uwm.edu/People/jcm/psy551/skinner.1/ho2
• Learning--tutorial, basic, short, links, graphics
  • Page from an on-line course, covers three aspects of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and cognitive learning. http://www.science.wayne.edu/~wpoff/memory.html
• Animal Training at Sea World--index, basic, short, links, graphics
  • Page about how marine mammals are trained at Sea World, topics include: introduction to animal behavior, introduction to animal training, how animals learn, marine mammal training at Sea World, the Sea World auditory cueing system, why do we train animals, bibliography, and books for young readers. http://www.seaworld.org/animal_training/atcontents.html
• The Annual Skinner Box Competition--text, interm., long, links, graphics
  • Student project directions for constructing and conditioning a rat in a Skinner Box (operant chamber). Page is for teachers of high school science project students, but can be read by anyone interested in the mechanics of operant conditioning. http://www.gene.com/ae/AE/AEC/AEF/1996/banister-marx_rat.html
• Ask Judy's Rat--text, basic, short, links, graphics
  • Page tells the story of a rat trained to wire schools for the Internet. The rat was trained to go through existing conduit while holding a string in its mouth. The string is attached to Category 5 cable. The page has links to stories and graphics about the rat. http://www.judyrat.com/
• Rat Lab--text, adv., long, links, graphics
  • How to condition rats in a Skinner Box (operant chamber) is the topic of this page from a course in experimental psychology. Provides the details for such activity. http://www.furman.edu/~jearles/ratlab.html
• B. F. Skinner's Bibliography--biblio., adv., long, links, graphics
  • Lists all of Skinner's publications and has links to his books (with descriptions), free reprints, and to the B. F. Skinner Foundation home page. http://www.lafayette.edu/allanr/biblio.htm
• Balance--publication, adv., long, links, graphics
  • An on-line newsletter published by the ABA (see above), strives to secure an accurate representation of behavioral analysis between the profession and the public. http://www.onlearn.com/balance.html
• Sources and Methods: Pigeon Intelligence--NEW, text, adv., short
  • Speculates on the "real" reasons that U.S. Coast Guard is spending money to train pigeons to rescue victims at sea. Concludes that the reason is to locate Russian submarines. http://www.worldmedia.com/caq/articles/sources7.htm
• Walden Two--NEW, text, basic, short, links
  • Text from the preface of book of same title (1948). Skinner's first try at behavioral engineering. http://www.lafayette.edu/allanr/walden.htm
• Beyond Freedom and Dignity--NEW, text, basic, short, links
  • Short quote from chapter one of book (1971) of same title. One of Skinner's attempts to apply psychology to problems of the real world. http://www.lafayette.edu/allanr/beyond.htm
• B.F. Skinner: A Brief Autobiography--NEW, book, interm., short, links
  • On-line index to Skinner's autobiography (1967). Sections are Skinner's Early Life; College & Skinner's Literary Interlude; Minnesota, Verbal Behavior, Project Pigeon, Baby Box, & Walden Two; Skinner's Behavior as a Scientist; The Control of Behavior; End of an Era; Postscript (by B.F. Skinner); References; Footnotes http://www.lafayette.edu/allanr/autobio.html
• "The Mind Exists"--NEW, article, adv., long
  • Donald A. Norman's comments in the Los Angeles Times (1990) on Skinner's behavior analysis following Skinner's death. Norman's comments are followed by a press release from APA describing his last public address at the 1990 APA convention. http://www.education.mcgill.ca/profs/cartwright/ep300/skinner1.htm