2. For each of Kohlberg's stage of moral development, provide the reasoning one might use at each stage for the example of paying one's taxes.
3. How do Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner agree? How do they disagree? Provide a coherent explanation for the success of the behavioral model.
4. Read the article below, (Chronicle of Higher Education, 3/17/97), New Evidence Challenges Notion That Newborns Are Sexually "Neutral" By LISA GUERNSEY
A scholarly paper published this month challenges an incident that many researchers have used to argue that infants are born sexually "neutral." The paper reveals that a boy who was raised as a girl after his penis was cut off never adapted to his new gender -- despite earlier reports to the contrary.
An article in the March issue of the Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine follows up on the case of a man described alternatively as "John" and "Joan."
John's case was documented in the 1970s by John Money, a researcher at the Johns Hopkins University. The pseudonymous John was born as a male, but during circumcision his penis was accidentally amputated. Because constructing female genitalia was easier than reconstructing the penis, doctors recommended that he be raised as a girl -- Joan.
In Joan's early life, Dr. Money reported that she was adapting well, leading many psychologists to believe that one's sexual identity is essentially "neutral" at birth. The case also led doctors to believe that very young boys who lose their genitalia or who are born with non-functioning, malformed organs could be successfully reassigned to the female sex.
But Milton Diamond of the University of Hawaii at Manoa and Keith Sigmundson of the Ministry of Health in British Columbia report that, in John's case, the reassignment was unsuccessful -- and disastrous to his mental well-being.
Although John's parents did not tell him what had happened, throughout his 14 years as a girl something "did not feel right," Dr. Diamond and Dr. Sigmundson write, quoting John. "Joan" did not have the inclination to play with dolls and other toys conventionally considered feminine.
She became angry at being treated like a girl. She fought wearing dresses; her more aggressive demeanor "did not jibe" with the behavior of other girls her age; and she "aspired to be a mechanic," the researchers report. By her early teen-age years, Joan had become suicidal.
At age 14, Joan decided to start living as a male and talked with therapists about undergoing surgery to become one. Soon after, her father tearfully told her of what transpired when she was an infant. "Allof a sudden everything clicked," John told the researchers.
After a mastectomy and phalloplasty, "John adjusted well," according to their report. When he was 25 years old, John married a woman and adopted her children. He told the researchers that he wanted his case to become known in the medical community "to reduce the likelihood of others suffering his psychic trauma," they write.
In light of the new evidence, Dr. Diamond and Dr. Sigmundson recommend that any male baby born with a normal number of chromosomes should be raised as a male, even though constructing a penis is more difficult than constructing female genitalia.
They also challenge the notion of individuals as "psychosexually neutral at birth," a theory that has become a subject of dispute among researchers in recent years. "The textbooks," they write, "have not kept abreast of the new thinking."
Analyze and interpret the article above in the light of Bandura's theory.